Kinds of Sentence

A sentence is a group of word that expresses a complete idea or thought.

Example. He bought a book.

The above group of words “He bought a book” expresses a complete though hence it is a sentence.

A sentence begins with capital letter and ends with a period, question mark or exclamation mark.

Kinds of sentences 
There are four kinds of sentences.

1. Assertive or Declarative Sentence
A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called an assertive or declarative sentence. Assertive sentence ends with a period.

Examples:
 He goes to school
 He likes to play chess.
They are singing a song.

2. Interrogative Sentence 
A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence. Interrogative sentence ends with question mark.

Examples.
Where are you going?
Do you use your laptop?

3. Imperative Sentence
A sentence that expresses a request, command or advice is called an imperative sentence.

Examples
Open the door. (an order)
Please help me. (a request)

4. Exclamatory Sentence
A sentence that expresses strong feelings or emotions is called an exclamatory sentence. These sentences express surprise, joy, sorrow, appreciation, love excitement, frustration, anger etc. An exclamatory sentence ends with exclamation mark.

Examples
What a beautiful flower it is!
How nicely she is singing!
That is fantastic! Hurrah!
We won the match!

How to Understand Tenses

I.              LANGUAGE USAGE 

A.    TENSES 

TENSES	POLA	KET. WAKTU
Present Tense (Menyatakan kebiasaan hingga sekarang masih dilakukan)	V= (+) S+V¹ (-s/es utk S he,she,it)       (-)  S+Do/Does not + V¹             Do utk S= I,you,they,we             Does utk S= he,she,it            She goes to school everyday            She does not go to school everyday N= (+) S+ to be (am/is/are) + adj/n/adv            She is beautiful	Every… Usually Always, etc
Present Continuous (Menyatakan aktivitas yang sedang berlangsung pada waktu bicara)	V= (+) S+ to be (am/is/are)+V-ing       She is not going to school everyday	Now At present At this moment To day
Present Perfect (Menyatakan perbuatan/tindakan yang terjadi pada waktu yang tidak tertentu di masa lampau dan pada saat berbicara perbuatan/tindakan tsb telah selesai/baru aja selesai dilakukan)	V= (+) S + have/has + V3             Have utk S= I,you,they,we             Has utk S= he,she,it        Father has gone to work for 12 hours N= (+) S + have/has+Been + adj/n/adv        Father has been at his office since 12        hours ago.	Lately Recently For Since already yet lately just
Past Tense (Menyatakan kegiatan yang dilakukan pada waktu lampau)	V= (+) S + V2       (-) S + did not + V¹            Did utk semua Subjek N= (+) S + Be (was/were) + adj/n/adv             Was utk S= I,he,she,it             Were utk S= you,they,we	Yesterday Last… …ago
Past Perfect Tense (Menyatakan aktivitas yang telah selesai dilakukan ketika aktivitas lain terjadi pada waktu lampau)	V= (+) S + had + V3             Had utk semua Sabjek (S)  N= (+) S + had been + adj/n/adv	Before/when + S + V2
Past Perfect Continuous (Menyatakan aktivitas yang telah berlangsung selama periode waktu tertentu ketika aktivitas lain terjadi diwaktu lampau, aktivitas tsb masih berlangsung)	V= (+) S + had been + V-ing	For + periode waktu + when/ before + S + V2
Future tense (Menyatakan aktivitas yang akan dilakukan di waktu yang akan datang)	V= (+) S + will/shall + V¹             Will utk semua Sabjek (S)             Shall utk S = I,we N= (+) S + will/shall +be + adj/n/adv	Tomorrow Next…
Future Continuous (Menyatakan aktivitas yang akan sedang berlangsung di waktu yang akan datang)	V= (+) S + will/shall + be + V-ing	At this time tomorrow At ten tomorrow
Future Perfect (Menyatakan aktivitas yang akan telah selesai dilakukan ketika aktivitas lain terjadi diwaktu yang akan datang)	V= (+) S + will/shall + have + V3  N= (+) S + will/shall +have +been +adj/n/	By + ket.waktu
Future Perfect Continuous (Menyatakan aktivitas yang akan telah sedang berlangsung selama waktu tertentu ketika aktivitas lain terjadi di waktu yang akan datang)	V= (+) S + will/shall +have+been + V-ing	By + ket.waktu
Past Future Tense (Menyatakan perbuatan/keadaan yang akan datang dilakukan/terjadi diwaktu lampau. Perbuatan tsb sudah direncanakan tapi tidak terlaksana)	V= (+) S + would/should + V¹   N= (+) S + would/should + be + adj/n/adv	Yesterday Last… Just now If + simple past
Past Future Perfect Tense (menyatakan suatu pengandaian pada masa lampau, sesuatu seharusnya akan telah terjadi pada saat suatu syarat terpenuhi)	V= (+) S + would/should + have +V3  N= (+) S + would/should + have been + adj/n/adv	If + past perfect
Past Perfect Continuous (Menyatakan perbuatan yang seharusnya sudah sedang berlangsung di suatu waktu di masa lampau tetapi kenyataanya gagal berlangsung)	V= (+) S + would/should + have been + V-ing	By + ket.waktu

Kita bisa mengenali setiap tensis dengan mengetahui ciri-ciri khusus yang dimiliki setiap tensis: 

Simple Present	V¹/do,does/am,is,are
Simple past	V2/did/was,were
Perfect	have/has/had + V3/been
Future/modal (present) Future/modal (past)	will/shall/may/can/must + V¹/be would/sould/might/could/had to + V¹/be
Continuous	Tobe + v-ing

TO BE

Present Past Perfect Future/modal

Am, is, are Was, were Been be

Contoh soal

1. Fred : Juda, the telephone rang twelve times. What were you doing?

    Juda:  I____ Javanese dancing, “Srimpi”.

    a. practiced                      d. have been practicing

    b. was practicing             e. will be practicing

    c. have practiced

      Jawaban : B (Past Continuous Tense)

2. Dian : The Public Health Center ____ there for more than twenty years.   

The doctors and paramedics work hard to improve the people’s health especially children.

    Iwan : Yes, they are successful. The infant/death rate has decreased remarkably.

    a. works                          d. has been working

    b. worked                        e. will have worked

    c. is working

      Jawaban : D (Present Perfect Continuous = peristiwa yang terjadi/dimulai pada waktu lampau dan sekarang masih berlangsung. Ada tanda waktu for yang bisa dijadikan ciri)

3.   Devi : So you have finished washing the dished. When did you do it?

Sri    :  I did while you ____ the yard.

a. clean                           d. were cleaning

b. cleaned                       e. have been cleaning

c. had cleaned

Jawaban : D (Past Continuous tense = menyatakan suatu kegiatan yang sedang berlangsung ketika kegiatan lain terjadi di waktu lampau. Kata while bisa dijadikan ciri)

4.      Retno : Why don’t you reply my letter?

Hadi   : Oh sorry. I forget to tell you that I ___ in Bali since last year.

a. am living                      d. will have lived

b. was living                     e. have been living

c. have to live

Jawaban : E (Present Perfect Continuous. Tanda waktu since dapat dijadikan ciri)

5.      Vina : When did you get the letter?

Fani  : Yesterday. My family ____ when the postman arrived.

a. have lunch                      d. will have had lunch

b. will have lunch               e. have been having lunch

c. were having lunch

Jawaban : C (Past Continuous tense biasa juga dipakai untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang sedang dilakukan ketika kegiatan lain terjadi pada waktu lampau.

When + simple past dapat dijadikan ciri)

Soal-Soal Latihan

1. If we don”t hurry, the meeting ___ by the time we get there.

a. would have started                    d. will start

b. will have started                        e. starts

c. will be started

2. The librarian suddenly heard a noise.

Librarian : What was the noise?

Student    : I dropped some books while I ____ them to the table.

a. carry                                          d. am carrying

b. carried                                       e. have carried

c. was carrying

3. Ann has been looking for a job for six month.

This sentence means that Ann ___.

a. has got a new job  d. has stopped looking for a job

b. has worked for six months e. started to work 6 months a go

c. is still looking for a job

4. When airport are located in the center of cities, they ___ noise pollution and disturb people’s life.

a. caused    d. were causing

b. causes    e. have caused

c. will cause

5. Agam : Where will we go next holiday?

Joko   : What about Bali?

Agam : That’s OK, but I ____ there many times.

a. am    d. will be

b. was    e. will have been

c. have been

6. My father is still in Bali. He ____ there for three weeks.

   a. is               d. has been

   b. was           e. have been

   c. had been 

7. Anto : I’m sorry Ary. I forget to bring your book.

   Ary   : What did he say Lina?

   Lina  : Anto said that he ___ to bring your book.

   a. has forgotten   d. forgets

   b. had forgotten   e. forgot

   c. would forget

8. Teacher : I”ve heard that Benny is ill. Is it right?

Student  : Yes, sir. He ____ ill for a week.

   a. was    d. would be

   b. has been    e. will have been

   c. had been

9. Teacher : You will be ready for a test next week. Learn all these.

Student  : All right, sir. I ____ them by then.

   a. learn    d. will be learning

   b. have learned   e. will have learned

   c. am learning

10. Reni goes to her university every morning. She studies business. You can’t meet her at her house at 10.00 tomorrow. She ___ the lectures.

   a. will be attending              d. has attended

   b. has been attending           e. attended

   c. would be attended 

How To Understand Figurative Language

Figurative Language

To communicate clearly, students must be able to identify and correctly use figurative language.

Defining Figurative Language

Figurative language is language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation. When a writer uses literal language, he or she is simply stating the facts as they are. Figurative language, in comparison, uses exaggerations or alterations to make a particular linguistic point. Figurative language is very common in poetry, but is also used in prose and nonfiction writing as well.
There are many different types of figurative language. For example, it often includes the use of a specific type of word or word meaning:

• Simile: A simile is a comparison that often uses the words like or as. One example of a simile would be to say, “Jamie runs as fast as the wind.”
• Metaphor: A metaphor is a comparison made between things which are essentially not alike. It is similar to a simile, but does not use like or as. One example of a metaphor would be to say, “Nobody invites Edward to parties because he is a wet blanket.”
• Personification: When something that is not human is given human-like qualities, this is known as personification. An example of personification would be to say, “The leaves danced in the wind on the cold October afternoon.”
• Hyperbole: Exaggerating, often in a humorous way, to make a particular point is known as hyperbole. One of example of hyperbole would be to say, “My eyes widened at the sight of the mile-high ice cream cones we were having for dessert.”
• Symbolism: Symbolism occurs when a noun which has meaning in itself is used to represent something entirely different. One example of symbolism would be to use an image of the American flag to represent patriotism and a love for one’s country.

In addition to various types of words relating to the word's meaning, figurative language also includes unusual constructions or combinations of words that provide a new perspective on the word. For example:

• Onomatopoeia: When you name an action by imitating the sound associated with it, this is known as onomatopoeia. One example of onomatopoeia would be to say, “The bees buzz angrily when their hive is disturbed.”
• Idiom: An idiom is an expression used by a particular group of people with a meaning that is only known through common use. One example of an idiom would be to say, “I’m just waiting for him to kick the bucket.” Many idioms that are frequently used are also considered clichés.

Figurative language can be found in literature and poetry where the writing appeals to the senses. It can do this by giving a word with a specific meaning, by comparing two things in such a way that you find the comparison interesting or by using words that have unusual constructions or sounds.

Figurative Language: Understanding the Concept

You are using figurative language when writing goes beyond the actual meanings of words so that the reader gains new insights into the objects or subjects in the work.

One of the best ways to really understand the concept of figurative language is to see it in action such as with these examples:

• Alright, the sky misses the sun at night.
• The poorest man is the richest, and the rich are poor.
• Hear the mellow wedding bells. - Edgar Allen Poe
• Out of reach, I pull out with a screech.
• I move fast like a cheetah on the Serengeti.
• Her head was spinning from all the new information.
• The toast jumped out of the toaster.
• I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.
• The Sea lashed out in anger at the ships, unwilling to tolerate another battle.
• The Redcoats are coming!
• I’ve told you a million times to clean your room!

Types of Figurative Language

There are many types of figurative language. Some include the use of a specific type of word or word meaning such as:

• Simile
• Metaphor
• Personification
• Hyperbole
• Symbolism

Figurative language can also include unusual constructions or combinations of words that give a new perspective on the word such as:

• Alliteration
• Onomatopoeia
• Idiom

Following is an explanation of each type of figurative language, each with an example of figurative language:

Simile

A simile compares two things using the words “like” and “as.” Examples include:

• busy as a bee
• clean as a whistle
• brave as a lion
• stand out like a sore thumb
• as easy as shooting fish in a barrel
• as dry as a bone
• as funny as a barrel of monkeys
• they fought like cats and dogs
• like watching grass grow

Metaphor

When you use a metaphor, you make a statement that doesn’t make sense literally, like “time is a thief.” It only makes sense when the similarities between the two things become apparent or someone understands the connection.

Examples include:

• the world is my oyster
• you are a couch potato
• time is money
• he has a heart of stone
• America is a melting pot
• you are my sunshine

Personification

Personification gives human characteristics to inanimate objects, animals, or ideas. This can really affect the way the reader imagines things. This is used in children’s books, poetry, and fictional literature. Examples include:

• opportunity knocked on the door
• the sun greeted me this morning
• the sky was full of dancing stars
• the vines wove their fingers together to form a braid
• the radio stopped singing and stared at me
• the sun played hide and seek with the clouds

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is an outrageous exaggeration that emphasizes a point, and can be ridiculous or funny. Hyperboles can be added to fiction to add color and depth to a character. Examples are:

• You snore louder than a freight train.
• It's a slow burg. I spent a couple of weeks there one day.
• She is so dumb, she thinks Taco Bell is a Mexican phone company.
• I had to walk 15 miles to school in the snow, uphill.
• You could have knocked me over with a feather.

Symbolism

Symbolism occurs when a word which has meaning in itself but is used to represent something entirely different. Examples are:

• Using an image of the American flag to represent patriotism and a love for one’s country.
• Using an apple pie to represent an American lifestyle.
• Using an apple to represent education.

Alliteration

Alliteration is the easiest of the examples of figurative language to spot. It is a repetition of the first consonant sounds in several words. Some good examples are:

• wide-eyed and wondering while we wait for others to waken

and tongue twisters like:

• Betty bought butter but the butter was bitter, so Betty bought better butter to make the bitter butter better.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia Definition

Onomatopoeia is defined as a word, which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting. For instance, saying, “The gushing stream flows in the forest” is a more meaningful description than just saying, “The stream flows in the forest.” The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a “gushing stream” which makes the expression more effective.
In addition to the sound they represent, many onomatopoeic words have developed meanings of their own. For example, “whisper” not only represents the sound of people talking quietly, but also describes the action of people talking quietly.

Common Examples of Onomatopoeia

• The buzzing bee flew away.
• The sack fell into the river with a splash.
• The books fell on the table with a loud thump.
• He looked at the roaring sky.
• The rustling leaves kept me awake.

The different sounds of animals are also considered as examples of onomatopoeia. You will recognize the following sounds easily:

• Meow
• Moo
• Neigh
• Tweet
• Oink
• Baa

Groups of Onomatopoeic Words

Onomatopoeic words come in combinations as they reflect different sounds of a single object. For example, a group of words reflecting different sounds of water are; plop, splash, gush, sprinkle, drizzle, drip etc.
Similarly, words like growl, giggle, grunt, murmur, blurt, chatter etc. denote different kinds of human voice sounds.
Moreover, we can identify a group of words related to different sounds of wind, such as; swish, swoosh, whiff, whoosh, whizz, whisper etc.

Onomatopoeia Examples in Literature

Onomatopoeia is frequently employed in literature. Below, a few Onomatopoeia examples are highlighted in bold letters:

Example #1

“The moan of doves in immemorial elms,
And murmuring of innumerable bees…”
(‘Come Down, O Maid’ by Alfred Lord Tennyson)

Example #2

“Hark, hark!
Bow-wow.
The watch-dogs bark!
Bow-wow.
Hark, hark! I hear
The strain of strutting chanticleer
Cry, ‘cock-a-diddle-dow!'”
(Ariel in William Shakespeare’s The Tempest, Act One, scene 2)

Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like their meaning, or mimic sounds.  They add a level of fun and reality to writing. Here are some examples:

• the burning wood hissed and crackled

• the words: beep, whirr, click, whoosh, swish, zap, zing, ping, clang, bong, hum, boom, munch, gobble, crunch, pow, smash, wham, quack, meow, oink, and tweet.

Idiom

An idion is an expression that has a meaning that is only known to a particular group of people. For example:

• Kick the bucket
• Raining cats and dogs
• Whistling Dixie

Regardless of the type of word used, figurative language can make you look at the world differently; it can heighten your senses and help you feel like you are having the same experience as the author.

Examples of Similes

Similes can be found just about anywhere; from the printed word to oral conversation; in language, literature, and music. A simile is a figure of speech that compares two things that are alike in some way. To help you identify a simile, know that the words “like” or “as” are typically used.
Well-known similes are:

• “cute as a kitten,” comparing the way someone looks to the way a kitten looks
• “as busy as a bee” comparing someone’s level of energy to a fast-flying bee
• "as snug as a bug in a rug" comparing someone who is very cozy to how comfortable a bug can be in a rug
• "as happy as a clam" comparing someone's happiness to the contentment of a clam
• "Life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you're going to get." comparing the uncertainty of life to the uncertainty of choosing a chocolate from a box
• "as agile as a monkey" implying someone can move as well as a monkey does
• "as black as coal" comparing the color of something dark to the very-dark coal color
• "as blind as a bat" indicating that the person cannot see any better than a bat

Similes Add Depth to Language

Similes can make our language more descriptive and enjoyable. Writers, poets, and songwriters make use of similes often to add depth and emphasize what they are trying to convey to the reader or listener. Similes can be funny, serious, mean, or creative.
Following are some examples of similes:

• My love is like a red, red rose.
• You were as brave as a lion.
• They fought like cats and dogs.
• He is as funny as a barrel of monkeys.
• This house is as clean as a whistle.
• He is as strong as an ox.
• Your explanation is as clear as mud.
• Watching the show was like watching grass grow.
• That is as easy as shooting fish in a barrel.
• This contract is as solid as the ground we stand on.
• That guy is as nutty as a fruitcake.
• Don’t just sit there like a bump on a log.
• That went over like a lead balloon.
• They are as different as night and day.
• She is as thin as a toothpick.
• Last night, I slept like a log.
• This dress is perfect because it fits like a glove.
• They wore jeans, which made me stand out like a sore thumb.
• My love for you is a deep as the ocean.
• I am so thirsty, that my throat is as dry as a bone.
• As bold as brass
• As bright as a button
• As shiny as a new pin
• As cold as ice
• As common as dirt
• As cool as a cucumber
• As hard as nails
• As hot as hell
• As innocent as a lamp
• A large as life
• A light as a feather
• As tall as a giraffe
• As tough as nails
• As white as a ghost
• As sweet as sugar
• As sure as death and taxes

The uses of similes can be confusing to people who are not fluent in a given language because they will interpret the words literally. Also, similes can change from region to region, and even among groups of people, like musicians or teenagers.
Language can change quickly, thanks to mass media and the Internet, so being fluent in a language is an ongoing process for everyone.

Metaphor

pronounced: MET-uh-for

All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players
They have their exits and their entrances
William Shakespeare

A metaphor is a figure of speech that says that one thing is another different thing. This allows us to use fewer words and forces the reader or listener to find the similarities.

The word metaphor comes from the Greek word metapherin (meaning "transfer").

The simplest form of metaphor is: "The [first thing] is a [second thing]."

Look at this example:

• Her home was a prison.

In the above sentence, we understand immediately that her home had some of the characteristics of a prison. Mainly, we imagine, she could not leave her home. She was trapped inside. Why it was a prison we do not know, but that would be clear from the context--perhaps her husband forced her to stay at home, perhaps she was afraid of the outside. We don't know, but the rest of the story would tell us. What is important here is that in five simple words we understand a lot about her environment, how she felt and how she behaved. In this sentence, "prison" is a metaphor.

Look at another example:

• George is a sheep.

What is one characteristic of sheep? They follow each other. So we can imagine that George is a follower, not a leader. In this sentence "sheep" is a metaphor.

Metaphors are very common in everyday language. But poets also like to use metaphors. In the following famous verse (from The Highwayman by Alfred Noyes), can you spot three metaphors in the first three lines?

The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees,
The moon was a ghostly galleon tossed upon cloudy seas,
The road was a ribbon of moonlight over the purple moor,
And the highwayman came riding--
Riding--riding--
The highwayman came riding, up to the old inn-door.

Look at these examples of metaphors with sample sentences and meanings:

Metaphor example	Metaphorical sense	Original sense
I'm not an angel, but I wouldn't behave like that.	exemplary person	a spiritual being believed to be a messenger of God
America is a melting pot.	place where different peoples, styles and cultures are mixed together	a container in which metals or other materials are melted and mixed
John is a real pig when he eats.	greedy person	a four-legged animal kept for meat (pork)
My father is a rock.	very strong or reliable person	a hard, mineral material made of stone
How could she marry a snake like that!	traitor	a long, limbless reptile (eg: cobra, python, viper)
The policeman let him off with a yellow card.	warning	(in soccer) a yellow card that the referee shows to players when cautioning them

All the above metaphors (the simplest form) are nouns. But there are other ways of making metaphors, for example with verbs or adjectives. Here are some examples:

Metaphor example	Original sense of the word (example)
The committee shot her ideas down one by one.	Anti-aircraft guns shoot down planes.
The private detective dug up enough evidence to convince the police to act.	Dogs like to bury bones and dig them up later.
He broke into her conversation.	Burglars break into buildings.
The new movie was very popular. People flocked to see it.	Birds flock together before they migrate.
His head was spinning with ideas.	Some computer hard drives spin at over 10,000 revolutions per minute.
Reading that book kindled my interest in politics.	You need to start with twigs and small branches when you kindle a camp fire.
Tim lost his job after a heated argument with his boss.	We have a heated swimming pool.
The new car's sexy design increased sales for the company.	Some women think that lipstick makes them look sexy.
He was dressed rather vulgarly in a loud checked suit.	I can't hear you because the radio is too loud.
It wasn't long before their relationship turned sour.	Sour food has an acid taste like lemon or vinegar.

Difference Between Metaphor and Simile
Both similes and metaphors link one thing to another. A simile usually uses "as" or "like". A metaphor is a condensed simile, a shortcut to meaning, which omits "as" or "like." A metaphor creates a relationship directly and leaves more to the imagination. With simile A is like B. With metaphor A is B.

simile	metaphor
Your eyes are like the sun.	You are my sunshine.
He eats like a pig. He lives like a pig.	He is a pig.

Dead Metaphors
In the phrase "to grasp the concept" the physical action "to grasp" is used as a metaphor for "to understand" (which is non-physical). But this phrase has been used so often that most English speakers do not have an image of the physical action in their mind. This metaphor has died; it is a "dead metaphor".

Mixed Metaphors
The awkward use of two or more different metaphors at the same time is normally best avoided. It creates conflicting images in the reader or listener's mind, reduces each metaphor's impact, and generally causes confusion. Look at this example:

• America is a melting pot where new ideas are kindled.